The term “Pre-Classical” is deliberately used here instead of “Vedic” because Vedic Sanskrit was the result of linguistic evolution. This evolution was the culmination of the progression from Proto-Indo-European to Proto-Indo-Iranian, followed by the evolution from Proto-Indo-Iranian of archaic Sanskrit and its localization. These transformations include the disappearance of laryngeals, the firming of aspirated consonants, and the palatalization of some proto-consonants, leading to the loss of sounds like za and zha and the introduction of moordhanya sha (the “sh” sound in “ship,” but pronounced higher on the palate with the tongue curved).
This period also saw movement towards making Sanskrit the language of the elite and educated. This is reflected in the creation of compound vowels, the introduction of the vowel ae between aa, long vowels ee, and uu, and pseudo-vowels like ri (ऋ). Compound consonants and syllables like “tra” (त्र), “ksha” (क्ष), “jnya” (ज्ञ), “rma” (र्म), and “tsa” (त्स) which required a polished diction and dexterity of pronunciation. These partly replaced stressed syllables like ‘tta’ (त्त), kkha (क्ख), and mma (म्म)—a change not adopted by Praakrita languages. Although we lack a continuous trail of perfect textual samples showing the entire evolution, a robust theory now exists based on a variety of resources.
The first resource is the comparison of the Rigveda and the three later Vedas. Extra-Vedic texts and traditions on Vedic recitations also hint at differences, which, apart from regional variations, reveal the evolution of pronunciation. Panini’s highly detailed phonetic transformation rules are also invaluable for this purpose. Comparative analysis with sister languages like Greek, Latin, and Avestan, as well as with Praakrita, and the transcription of Sanskrit texts into languages like Chinese, Greek, Gandhari, and Kharosthi, have all contributed to our understanding of Sanskrit’s synthesis.
Beyond phonology, certain features were “polished-away” in the creation of Classical Sanskrit. Pre-classical Sanskrit was more liberal with borrowed elements, such as the regional consonant ḷ (ळ), which was dropped in Classical Sanskrit. Vedic Sanskrit had a strong tonal (pitch) component, which was abandoned for simplicity, along with the long forms of compound vowels “ai” and “au.” As it was still evolving, Vedic Sanskrit had a larger number of tenses and moods (lakaara) and case-endings (praatipadika). These were significantly rationalized in Classical Sanskrit.
Another feature that nearly fell victim to simplification and rationalization was the dual number (dvi-vachana) form. Although it was retained in Classical Sanskrit, its use was far more frequent in the Vedas. Similarly, the word order rule (Subject-Object-Verb) was much more flexible in Vedic Sanskrit, making its deciphering a bit of cerebral calisthenics. There was much greater leniency in the use of non-standard word forms, such as sa (स) instead of sah (सः, he), ta (त) instead of te (ते, they), and isha (इष) instead of esha (एषः/एषा, he/she). The latter two can partly be attributed to the extensive use of metrical forms suited for memorization through oral recitation.
The most challenging aspect, however, is the use of the same words with significantly different meanings in Vedic Sanskrit compared to later usage. Classic examples include yoga, gaNapati, raajaa, sindhu, mahaadeva, roodra, vishnu, soma, daasa, and asura. This homonymy is the primary source of erroneous interpretations of characters and deities in the Vedas and the use of these names in later texts like the PuraaNas. There is yet another group of words used in the Vedas that fell out of favor in Classical Sanskrit, except when referencing their original usage in Vedic texts. Examples include tureeya (the fourth or exalted state), adri (rock or mountain), sham (peace), vraata (group), and ahan (day).
The widely accepted timeline for pre-Ashtaadhyaayi Sanskrit begins around 1,500 BCE, coinciding with the development of the basic framework and the Rigveda. The composition of the later, more analytical and ritualistic parts of Vedic texts, along with the simplification of phonetics, occurred between approximately 1,000 and 500 BCE. Panini’s framework of Classical Sanskrit, dating to 400 BCE, took a couple of centuries to become mainstream. During this period, the oldest versions of the epics we know today as the Mahaabhaarata and RaamaayaNa were composed. From around 200 BCE onward, Classical Sanskrit became the standard form of Sanskrit.
The final word on the birth and evolution of Sanskrit is far from being written. The Keeladi archaeological discoveries, which reveal a connection between ancient Tamil and Indus Valley Civilization pictographs beyond statistical coincidence, have pushed back the timeline of Sangam literature into greater antiquity. With Artificial Intelligence’s ability to uncover subtle patterns and obscured meanings, more theories on Indian languages, including Sanskrit, are expected in the near future.